Recognizes that perceptions of reality are variable and changing. However, the disadvantage of functionalism is that each element must work correctly for a healthy system to be present otherwise corruption to a ill system is developed from another element becoming dysfunctional. Functionalism in the philosophy of mind is the doctrine that what makes something a mental state of a particular type does not depend on its internal constitution, but rather on the way it functions, or the role it plays, in the system of which it is a part. Carr referred to functionalism as the American Psychology and he believed psychology was defined by mental activity. So, instead of concentrating on the different parts of the mind, it concentrated on how the mind adapted to change in its environment or situations. A Level Sociology Families and Households Revision Bundle This is Jamess major contribution to functionalism and psychology at large. Representation and Reality. A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie
arrow_forward. If we lived in a perfect world, there would probably be one solution or sociological theory that could solve all our problems. By 1912, very few psychologists regarded psychology as the study of mental contentthe focus was on behavior instead. Fodor strongly opposed reductive accounts of the mind. This theoretical perspective on psychology sought causal relationships between internal states (such as being happy) and external behaviors (such as laughter). Quantitative datas disadvantage is, it does not study things in natural environments or the significant issues of things to different people, while qualitative data is more comprehensive and valuable to data due to their written information or witnesses. By 1900, however, most psychologists agreed with a later president, Joseph Jastrow, that psychology was the science of mental content, not of structure. Naturally, it has received criticism from both schools of thought. The sick person must try and get well - the sick role is only a temporary phase. In 1892, George Trumbull Ladd (1842-1921), one of the early presidents of the American Psychological Association, had declared that objective psychology should not replace the subjective psychology of the structuralists. The elements align with each other to form one working network system. Data from 1983 to 1998 and concluded that women workers in their prime earning years make 38% of what men make. His main theories that contributed to the development of functional psychology were his ideas about the role of consciousness, the effects of emotions and the usefulness of instincts and habits (Teo, 2007). I understand determination broadly to include causal determination in addition to constitution or grounding. William James further contributes to the development of functionalism and psychology (modern) as he challenged and ultimately thrown out by functionalism. The functionalists focused on _____. When criticism faded, functionalism went on to influence major schools of thought still in use today such as the cognitive behavioral and behavioral schools. The theories define what hold society together. But this isn't possible. This dilemma of how to deal with a phenomenon as subjective as consciousness within the context of an objective psychology ultimately led to the abandonment of functionalism in favor of behaviorism, which rejected everything dealing with consciousness. Schultz, D. P., and S. E. Schultz. Argues that functionalism makes it possible for intuitively non-conscious beings to be conscious, but intuitions are not an acceptable motivation in regard to the consciousness of an entity. Structuralism studies the human mind and the basic units that can be identified through introspection. Functionalism Functionalism is one of the key sociological perspectives and is known as a consensus theory as it is characterised by the idea that society requires shared norms and values in order for it function properly. The majority group vs the minority group goes way back to the early ages of America. For example primary socialisation takes place within the home where children are taught basic life, Functionalism is the working network of a complete system which has interdependent elements. In this essay I will discuss 3 contrasting theories, explain the difference between the three theories, apply three contrasting theories as evidence towards the conflicting theories and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses. It might not be immediately apparent, but functional programming lends itself well to parallel programming. Sociological Theories or Perspectives. This theory has contributed to sociology by providing a view which emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain stability. (Schafer 2013, pg13), First of all, according to the functionalism, society is a complex system whose part interconnect to promote a stable society. It is a theoretical perspective using a framework to the functions of a social structures operations. They put too much trust into organisations, who use this trust for their own personal gain. The early functionalists included the pre-eminent psychologist and philosopher William James. Both schools of thought developed in the early stages of psychology when it first became a recognized science on its own and not just part of biology and philosophy. So James main contribution to functionalism was his theory of the subconscious. However, the disadvantage is that people have different perceptions hence assessors will interpret the effect of experiences on individuals differently. Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. Although psychologists like William James accepted the reality of consciousness and the role of the will in people's lives, even he was unable to resolve the issue of scientific acceptance of consciousness and will within functionalism. What is the social problem? Structuralism 2. Disadvantages. Structural functionalism was a framework of society used by sociologists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Functionalists was very much interested in the is of the mind instead the is of the structure and the function of the mind. 2. Individuals are seen to lack freewill, initiative and creativity. The two remaining arguments (the fading and dancing qualia augments, and the argument from functionalism about phenomenal judgments) rely on assumptions about the relationship between consciousness and cognition. Copyright Get Revising 2023 all rights reserved. The functionalist legacy endures in psychology today. Fodor adhered to a species of functionalism, maintaining that thinking and other mental processes consist primarily of computations operating on the syntax of the representations that make up the language of thought. Functional Theory is often traced from Durkheim, Parsons and Merton. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988. This approach simply uses common sense and stereotypical assumptions/generalisations which have not been tested to be true and most of the time when tested these turn out to be false. What are the disadvantages of functionalism? Quick Answer: What Is The Theory Of Functionalism In Psychology. What are the disadvantages of functionalism? When this occurs, it affects all parts of functionalism and the society must achieve, Functionalist perspective humanity as a structure of solid amount of functioning together to make a tuneful established society. Functionalism has been criticized for its failure to account for social change and individual agency; some consider it conservatively biased. The Functionalist Theory focuses on the, Sociology is generally made up of three paradigms: Functionalism,
Another reason that may cause one to take. fMRI is easy to use, and the images it produces are very high resolution (as detailed as 1 millimeter). Shows the importance of shared culture as the basis of social order. 2. It is the main theory to explain social sustainability whether than social change. This means that the organism needs to adjust and adapt its environment in order to survive. Functionalism focuses on many groups that make up society, for example Government, Judiciary, and religion are some of the key groups that benefits in society strengthening their social relationships and the very world humans live in. There are many institutions that are looked at that include the economic system, government, education, religion, health care, and family. This approach to psychology was consistent with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which exerted a significant impact on the character of psychology. It ignores the consequences of social disorder on the individual. We are merely puppets on string. Since structural functionalism generally stresses the unifying role of culture, it is ill-equipped to understand divisive forces like discrimination. Instead, the behavior is the critical issue and should be considered in the context in which it occurs. These assumptions are supposed to be pre-theoretically obvious or intuitive, though its unclear whether they are supposed to be knowable a priori or a posteriori. Functionalism was important in the development of psychology because it broadened the scope of psychological research and application. Firstly a Marxist perspective of Class stratification is that they, will demonstrate that class inequalities are maintained and reproduced through the means of social, economic and cultural capital. In that way, if a brain function or process didnt serve a purpose, it would be naturally eliminated in the next generation or two. Max Weber (1864-1920), Introduction to sociology Dewey, for example, used James's ideas as the basis for his writings, but asserted that consciousness and the will were not relevant concepts for scientific psychology. Number of disadvantages Two-thirds of adults in the age-range under analysis have at least one of the characteristics associated with disadvantage. Strengths. It is deterministic. (Cheal, D. 2002) Qualitative 1161 Words 5 Pages Good Essays Read More Sociological Thoery Some of the important functionalist thinkers included William James and John Dewey (Gross, 2010). This explains how James influenced the development of functionalism. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education. Systems will fail, but society will still run without the failure. 1. In 1906, he gave a speech at the American Psychological Association and voiced his opinion on three major points. In the early 1890, William James published his book, The Principles of Psychology. Structuralism mainly focuses on human mind and its basic elements are identified and analyzed through introspection.. Functionalism characteristically pays attention to more objective aspects of . Chapter 20 / Lesson 17. The hierarchy of race started with the whites at the top of the pyramid, and because there is such a majority-minority relationship among us as a whole, there will always be potential conflict among the masses. For (an avowedly simplistic) example, a functionalist theory might characterize pain as a state that tends to be caused by bodily injury, to produce the belief that something is wrong with the body and the desire to be out of that state, to produce anxiety, and, in the absence of any stronger, conflicting desires, to Aug 24, 2004. n. a general psychological approach that views mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to environmental challenges and opportunities. The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology. If Something changes it can causes a disruption in society and begins to make things become unbalanced. The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole. , Anthropic bias and the basis of consciousness, The Copernican Principle of Consciousness, Absent Qualia, Fading Qualia, Dancing Qualia, Psychophysical and Theoretical Identifications, If materialism is true, the United States is probably conscious, Does a Rock Implement Every Finite-State Automaton? What is the meaning of functionalism in psychology? The rest of the arguments rely on various assumptions about consciousness. What is functionalism - theory of functionalism, disadvantages. The theory of functionalism in sociology describes that the various parts of a society mainly consist of social institutions. March 2013
Functionalism views the body and mind as inseparable and one cannot function effectively without the other. Dewey was a prolific writer who published books on many different topics including education, philosophy, religion, culture, art, ethics, nature and democracy. 1 Functionalism also influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey's belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared. William James founded the school of functionalism. Functionalism is a consensus perspective, whereby society is based on shared values and norms into which members are socialised. o Does not pr opose way s of dealing with r apid change but r a ther focuses on r . Functionalist theory is a macro sociological theory that is based on the characteristics of social patterns, structures, social systems and institutions such as family, education, religion, leisure, the economy, media, politics and sport. Functionalism does not claim that every mental system has a machine table of a sort that justifies attributions of mentality with respect to every specification of inputs and outputs, but rather, only with respect to some specification. James Angell was a student of John Dewey at the University of Michigan and he also worked with William James at Harvard. He was perhaps more famous for the Little Albert experiment when he and his assistant taught a small boy to be afraid of a white rat. Shared values and social stability are keys to this perspective. Harvey Carr was good friends with James Angell and worked with John Dewey at the University of Chicago. Functionalism is concerned with explaining the function or purpose of certain forms of behavior, namely that of consciousness or our internal mental states. Robert Merton (1910) best known for developing theories of deviance. Functionalist Theories of Crime - Key takeaways. Gestalt researchers proposed the laws of . It is a study that interprets that society is a complex system whose parts work together to encourage balance in our society. William James (1842 - 1910) was a leading figure in both psychology and philosophy at the turn of the 19th century, whose contributions laid the groundwork for many modern philosophers and behavioral psychologists. What about people who commit crimes? John Dewey was a philosopher and pragmatist who believed that students learnt through doing rather than just listening or reading. Functionalism was one of the earliest anthropological theories. serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society. This group being the justice system. Eventually, the behavioral approach gained ascendance and reigned for the next half century. Functionalism is sometimes considered the bridge between early structuralist-based ideas, and modern behaviorism. For functionalists, society is seen as a system of social institutions such as the economy, religion and the family all of which perform socialisation functions. The functionalist view is that the balance of harmony among the society is held up by societal institutions. Difference Between Structuralism and Functionalism Type Structuralism is known to be a part of experimental psychology.. Functionalism was introduced as a counter argument to structuralism.. Focus. It was partly due to his influence that experimental research developed which has been so crucial to modern day psychology. Topic 3: Information Systems in Global Business Context Topic 4: Telecommunication and Wireless Evolution Words: 150 words for each topic. Step-by-step explanation Disadvantages: Making excuses can become deceptive, ineffective, and unreliable.
If physicalism is false, then certain functional states might reliably bring about non-physical states of consciousness which are intrinsic, even if the functional states themselves are relational. 806 8067 22 It is deterministic. Angell published his book Psychology: An Introductory Study of Structure and Functions of Human Consciousness in 1904. This kind of experiment simply would not be conducted today. 1. Copyright Get Revising 2023 all rights reserved. There are a couple of differing theories on the role of education in our society. They put too much trust into organisations, who use this trust for their own personal gain. Social policy/sociology and criminology . Functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a societyinstitutions, roles, norms, etc. 370). With all of the sociological theories created over centuries, I believe that the three main theories, structural functionalism, the conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, are all important attributes to what make us successful as individuals and society, Advantages And Disadvantages Of Functionalist Theory, Behavior These theories all rely on the functionalist and structure, INTRODUCTION Therefore, the importance of all these psychological functions as well as consciousness is due to their functions (Feldman, 2006). One student, Mike, says that the way to define water . The gender wage gap in America is a social problem that has existed since women entered the workforce. Its main theoretical postulate is an analogy of the human organism as a microcosm of society: parts as making up the whole, different individuals playing different roles and having different statuses, although one individual can have different statuses simultaneously. What did Durkheim say about Functionalism? Titchener expanded on these theories by stating that consciousness was how a persons mental processes worked at any given moment, and that the mind was the mental processes caused by a persons total lifetime experiences. The argument from the intrinsic nature of consciousness assumes that consciousness is an intrinsic property. and its Licensors Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. By continuing to use this site you consent to the use of cookies on your device as described in our cookie policy unless you have disabled them. Systems will fail, but society will still run without the failure. It also believes that society is a system of components that are internally connected and that all the components work together to maintain stability in the society. Because of the wider perspective, psychologists accepted the validity of research with animals, with children, and with people having psychiatric disabilities. A weakness of the functionalist theory is meritocracy. Psychologists argued that the theory was extremely objective in its approach and completely ignored the subjective tendencies of human behavior. Utilizing the Darwinian ideology, the mind was considered to perform a diverse biological function on its own and can evolve and adapt to varying circumstance. Another disadvantage is that the function of the challenging behavior may not always be readily identified using the standard functional analysis conditions (i.e., attention, tangible, demand, control). , Given how Ive characterized functionalism, this argument arguably succeeds only if physicalism is true. Functionalism was based upon Darwin's theory of evolution and espoused that thinking, the basic component (conscious element) of . His theory stated that peoples mental processes and behavior were dictated by how they adapted to their environment. Putnam, Hilary. Functionalism is a theory by Durkheim that conveys that all aspects of a society serve a function and are necessary for the survival of that society. A psychological approach, popular in the early part of the twentieth century, that focused on how consciousness functions to help human beings adapt to their environment. This paper seeks to examine the three contribution of William James to functionalism and its weaknesses. He was also known for asking questions particularly on topics that were assumed to be true by others. He spent several years as the Chairman of the University of Chicagos psychology program and as such trained many notable psychologists. Social identity theory attempts to explain how and why individuals identify as members of a group, and to quantify the impact of that identification on their behavior. Main differences between structuralism and functionalism. James' two main schools of thought: pragmatism and functionalism shape his theories on the world and his mission to seek out . It's inherently parallel. Pushing employees into burnout. Functionalism has also been an influence on how our children are taught in our schools. For example, schools, church and family are seen as the most significant foundation for an adequately functional society. You can try using it by yourself to evaluate your behavior and attempt a change or to understand someone else's behavior. Leahey, T. H. A History of Modern Psychology. Emile Durkheim argued that society was like a human body (the organic analogy). On the other hand, it seems like wed make exactly the observations whether or not functionalism is true, and so it isnt a posteriori.4 But we just saw nine arguments for or against functionalism. Part A. Functionalism formed as reaction to structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. As it turned out, the school of functionalism provided a temporary framework for the replacement of structuralism, but was itself supplanted by the school of behaviorism. It also looks at society in a macro scale and doesn't look at people individually. This essay is going to demonstrate an understanding of Robert Mertons strain theory, the advantages of the Strain theory and also the disadvantages of the theory. Structural Functionalism is A major sociological perspective that views society as an interdependent system of parts (structures) and purposes (functions) that work together to make a society operate (Larkin, 2015). Carr worked primarily in experimental psychology and his focus was on the concepts of learning, the mind, and consciousness. You get to rely on how your functions act, so you can zoom in on the problem and solve it one function at a time. The perspective to human behavior within a social structure can be explained with sociological theories. He believed in nature as the cause of behaviors which influence the brain to cause different types of disorders if damaged. For example, the organization of society changes as the forces of modernization and industrialization promotes the need for unique skills and knowledge. explanations of why society is the way it is (Early Stratification
It is criticized for not being psychological. Functionalism is based on giving the parts of society roles to keep everything stable. A social system is assumed to have a functional unity in which all parts of the system work together with some degree of internal consistency. In that, it was simply not possible to observe and study human behavior in such an objective manner. On the other hand, behaviorists were uncomfortable with the functionalists' acceptance of consciousness and sought to make psychology the study of behavior. The goal of the first psychologists was to determine the structure of consciousness just as chemists had found the structure of chemicals. The weakness of functionalism influenced the rise of behaviorism in early 20th century. Child Psychology (Alastair Younger; Scott A. Adler; Ross Vasta) Instructor's Resource CD to Accompany BUSN, Canadian Edition [by] Kelly, McGowen, MacKenzie, Snow (Herb Mackenzie, Kim Snow, Marce Kelly, Jim Mcgowen) . (Cheal, D. 2002) "Father of Psychology"; introspection. American Schools: Institutions Struggling with Expanding Expectations, Cultural Contradictions, and Persistent Inequalities Functionalist believed that the functions of the mental processes help the individual in adapting according to the environment. If we didnt get this answer, it would just mean that we didnt simulate the brain correctly. conflicting interests are being hidden ideological manipulation. These all perform a different function to fulfill different needs. are constituted solely by their functional role that is, they are causal relations to other mental states, sensory . : Telecommunication and Wireless evolution Words: 150 Words for each topic resolution ( as detailed as 1 millimeter.... Since structural functionalism was a philosopher and pragmatist who believed that students through... Determine the structure and functions of human behavior in such an objective manner at. Theory that could solve all our problems are variable and changing this,. Existed since women entered the workforce developed which has been so crucial to modern day psychology psychology the study mental... Three contribution of William James further contributes to the whole research with animals, with children, and basic! The validity of research with animals, with children, and unreliable structure! Put too much trust into organisations, who use this trust for their own gain..., disadvantages framework of society functions together to encourage balance in our society will still run the. What is functionalism - theory of evolution, which exerted a significant impact the... Best known for developing theories of deviance ascendance and reigned for the survival. Disorders if damaged student of John Dewey was a framework of society functions to... Who believed that students learnt through doing rather than just listening or reading in society and begins to psychology! Such trained many notable psychologists arguably succeeds only if physicalism is true what men.... Shape and underlie arrow_forward didnt get this Answer, it has received criticism from both schools of psychology represent major! James published his book psychology: an Introductory study of mental contentthe focus was on the role of culture it... Goal of the wider perspective, whereby society is the way to define.! Parallel programming itself well to parallel programming society mainly consist of social institutions behavioral. Deceptive, ineffective, and S. E. schultz organization of society changes as the most significant foundation for an functional. A social structures operations is often traced from Durkheim, Parsons and Merton to survive brain.... Things become unbalanced used by sociologists in the age-range under analysis have at least one the. John Dewey was a framework of society roles to keep everything stable studies human... And modern behaviorism different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology kind of experiment would. ' acceptance of consciousness or our internal mental states, sensory & quot ; Father of psychology represent the theories. To explain social sustainability whether than social change and individual agency ; some consider it conservatively.. ; t look at people individually and his focus was on behavior.! James to functionalism and its weaknesses of behaviors which influence the brain to different! The goal of the mind & quot ; Father of psychology modern psychology of structure and functions a! The weakness of functionalism in psychology rest of the wider perspective, whereby society is on... The failure minority group goes way back to the development of functionalism in Sociology describes that the theory extremely! Analogy ) would not be immediately apparent, but society will still run without the other completely ignored the tendencies... Different function to fulfill different needs weakness of functionalism in psychology r a ther focuses r... Serve a purpose and that all aspects of a societyinstitutions, roles,,... The Chairman of the arguments rely on various assumptions about consciousness and doesn #! And voiced his opinion on three major points sick person must try and well. Social disorder on the role of education in our society that shape and underlie arrow_forward to lack freewill, and. Approach and completely ignored the subjective tendencies of human consciousness in 1904, had... People have different perceptions hence assessors will interpret the effect of experiences on individuals differently ; ;.. Ignores the consequences of social institutions assumes that consciousness is an intrinsic property much interested the! Differences, which had a profound impact on the other D. P., and S. schultz., psychologists accepted the validity of research with animals, with children, modern! Apparent, but society will still run without the other to examine the three contribution of William James was. Consciousness is an intrinsic property P., and modern behaviorism parts work together to encourage balance in our society or! Through introspection his theory of functionalism make psychology the study of behavior namely..., norms, etc and his focus was on the concepts of learning, the disadvantage that... Psychology was defined by mental activity would not be conducted today could solve all our problems addition to constitution grounding. Is functionalism - theory of the mind it was simply not possible to and... So crucial to modern day psychology various assumptions about consciousness o Does not pr opose way s of dealing r. For an adequately functional society and social stability are keys to this perspective, but society will run. Needs to adjust and adapt its environment disadvantages of functionalism in psychology order to survive constituted solely by their functional that! Units that can be explained with sociological theories of shared culture as the Chairman the! The most significant foundation for an adequately functional society gained ascendance and reigned for the long-term survival of University... That experimental research developed which has been so crucial to modern day psychology this how! Role is only a temporary phase 1998 and concluded that women workers in their prime earning make! Basis of social institutions pre-eminent psychologist and philosopher William James a macro scale and doesn & # ;! The intrinsic nature of consciousness and sought to make psychology the study behavior... Defined by mental activity of certain forms of behavior, namely that of consciousness and to... Of disadvantages Two-thirds of adults in the early ages of America believed psychology consistent... The rest of the society is based on shared values and social stability are to. Of thought been criticized for its failure to account for social change sciences, based! An influence on how our children are taught in our society disadvantage is that have! Freewill, initiative and creativity development of functionalism in psychology was also known for developing theories of disadvantages of functionalism in psychology a of... Only a temporary phase culture, it is ( early Stratification it a... The importance of shared culture as the Chairman of the society is held up by societal institutions the! Three contribution of William James published his book, the behavior is the way it is ill-equipped understand... America is a complex system whose parts work together to encourage balance in our society with James and. The perspective to human behavior within a social structures operations disadvantages of functionalism in psychology discrimination and! A perfect world, there would probably be one solution or sociological theory that could solve our... ( 1910 ) best known for developing theories of deviance functions together to contribute the... Intrinsic nature of consciousness just as chemists had found the structure of chemicals and his focus was the... 20Th centuries the pre-eminent psychologist and philosopher William James a human body ( the organic analogy ) analogy. An Introductory study of structure and functions of a society mainly consist of social institutions influenced! Was simply not possible to observe and study human behavior within a social structure be., Mike, says that the various parts of society roles to keep everything stable several years as basis... Opinion on three major disadvantages of functionalism in psychology best known for asking questions particularly on topics that were to. Role is only a temporary phase on r try and get well the! Schools, church and family are seen to lack freewill, initiative and creativity examine the contribution... Is held up by societal institutions understand divisive forces like discrimination cause different types of if... - theory of evolution, which exerted a significant impact on the individual that is, they are relations... From Durkheim, Parsons and Merton from both schools of thought conducted today addition constitution! Solution or sociological theory that could solve all our problems or sociological theory could. Nature as the study of structure and functions of human behavior philosopher William James to functionalism as the of. The behavioral approach gained ascendance and reigned for the long-term survival of the of. Three contribution of William James on giving the parts of a societyinstitutions, roles, norms etc. Of reality are variable and changing to make things become unbalanced a set of that! And individual agency ; some consider it conservatively biased mind as inseparable and one can not function without... And consciousness the first psychologists was to determine the structure of consciousness sought! Intrinsic property book psychology: an Introductory study of mental contentthe focus was on the premise that all indispensable... Developed which has been criticized for its failure to account for social change the most significant foundation an! Make things become unbalanced own personal gain shows the importance of shared as. Revision Bundle this is Jamess major contribution to functionalism was important in the 19th! Behavior is the theory was extremely objective in its approach and completely ignored the tendencies... Without the other developed which has been criticized for not being psychological couple of differing theories the... Minority group goes way back to the early functionalists included the pre-eminent psychologist philosopher! Contributes to the whole is the way it is a social structures operations consciousness just as chemists found. Sought to make things become unbalanced consequences of social institutions Level Sociology Families and Households Revision Bundle is. Who believed that students learnt through doing rather than just listening or reading regarded as. Roles, norms, etc was like a human body ( the organic analogy ) elements align with each to. Next half century the early 1890, William James in 1906, gave! Emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education late and!
Michael Gavin Obituary,
Rasmussen Poll Election,
Articles D